{"id":600,"date":"2017-04-16T02:54:33","date_gmt":"2017-04-16T02:54:33","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/bio1\/chapter\/5-6-active-transport\/"},"modified":"2025-08-29T17:43:20","modified_gmt":"2025-08-29T17:43:20","slug":"5-6-active-transport","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/bio1\/chapter\/5-6-active-transport\/","title":{"raw":"Active Transport","rendered":"Active Transport"},"content":{"raw":"Active transport <\/strong>mechanisms require the use of the cell\u2019s energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). If a substance must move into the cell against its concentration gradient, that is, if the concentration of the substance inside the cell must be greater than its concentration in the extracellular fluid, the cell must use energy to move the substance. Some active transport mechanisms move small-molecular weight material, such as ions, through the membrane.\n\nIn addition to moving small ions and molecules through the membrane, cells also need to remove and take in larger molecules and particles. Some cells are even capable of engulfing entire unicellular microorganisms. You might have correctly hypothesized that the uptake and release of large particles by the cell requires energy. A large particle, however, cannot pass through the membrane, even with energy supplied by the cell.\n

Electrochemical Gradient<\/h1>\nWe have discussed simple concentration gradients\u2014differential concentrations of a substance across a space or a membrane. However, in living systems gradients are more complex. Cells contain many proteins, most of which are negatively charged.\u00a0 Due to these negatively charged proteins, coupled with the movement of ions into and out of cells, there is an electrical gradient (a difference of charge) across the plasma membrane. The interior of living cells is electrically negative as compared to the extracellular fluid in which cells are bathed; at the same time, cells contain higher concentrations of potassium (K+) and lower concentrations of sodium (Na+) than does the extracellular fluid. Thus, in a living cell, the concentration gradient and electrical gradient of Na+ promotes diffusion of the ion into the cell, and the electrical gradient of Na+ (a positive ion) tends to drive it inward to the negatively charged interior. The situation is more complex, however, for other elements such as potassium. The electrical gradient of K+ promotes diffusion of the ion into <\/em>the cell, but the concentration gradient of K+ promotes diffusion out <\/em>of the cell (Figure 5<\/strong>). The combined gradient that affects an ion is called its electrochemical gradient<\/strong>, and it is especially important to muscle and nerve cells.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_80\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"300\"]\"figure_03_23 Figure 5<\/strong> Electrochemical gradients arise from the combined effects of concentration gradients and electrical gradients. (credit: modification of work by \u201cSynaptitude\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\n

Moving Against a Gradient<\/h1>\nTo move substances against a concentration or an electrochemical gradient, the cell must use energy. This energy is harvested from ATP that is generated through cellular metabolism. Active transport mechanisms, collectively called pumps or carrier proteins, work against electrochemical gradients. With the exception of ions, small substances constantly pass through plasma membranes. Active transport maintains concentrations of ions and other substances needed by living cells in the face of these passive changes. Much of a cell\u2019s supply of metabolic energy may be spent maintaining these processes. As active transport mechanisms depend on cellular metabolism for energy, they are sensitive to many metabolic poisons that interfere with the supply of ATP.\n\nTwo mechanisms exist for the transport of small-molecular weight material and macromolecules. Primary active transport<\/strong> moves ions across a membrane and creates a difference in charge across that membrane. The primary active transport system uses ATP to move a substance, such as an ion, into the cell, and often at the same time, a second substance is moved out of the cell. The sodium-potassium pump, an important pump in animal cells, expends energy to move potassium ions into the cell and a different number of sodium ions out of the cell (Figure 6<\/strong>). The action of this pump results in a concentration and charge difference across the membrane.\n\nSecondary active transport<\/strong> describes the movement of material using the energy of the electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport. Using the energy of the electrochemical gradient created by the primary active transport system, other substances such as amino acids and glucose can be brought into the cell through membrane channels. ATP itself is formed through secondary active transport using a hydrogen ion gradient in the mitochondrion.\n

Endocytosis<\/h1>\nEndocytosis <\/strong>is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of cells, and even whole cells, into a cell. There are different variations of endocytosis, but all share a common characteristic: The plasma membrane of the cell invaginates, forming a pocket around the target particle. The pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle being contained in a newly created vacuole that is formed from the plasma membrane.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_141\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"372\"]\"\" Figure 7<\/strong> Three variations of endocytosis are shown. (a) In one form of endocytosis, phagocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds the particle and pinches off to form an intracellular vacuole. (b) In another type of endocytosis, pinocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds a small volume of fluid and pinches off, forming a vesicle. (c) In receptor-mediated endocytosis, uptake of substances by the cell is targeted to a single type of substance that binds at the receptor on the external cell membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)[\/caption]\n\nPhagocytosis <\/strong>is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell. For example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil removes the invader through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is then destroyed by the neutrophil (Figure 7<\/strong>a).\n\nA variation of endocytosis is called pinocytosis<\/strong>. This literally means \u201ccell drinking\u201d and was named at a time when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in extracellular fluid. In reality, this process takes in solutes that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid (Figure 7<\/strong>b).\n\nA targeted variation of endocytosis employs binding proteins in the plasma membrane that are specific for certain substances (Figure 7<\/strong>c). The particles bind to the proteins and the plasma membrane invaginates, bringing the substance and the proteins into the cell. If passage across the membrane of the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis <\/strong>is ineffective, it will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration.\n\nSome human diseases are caused by a failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example, the form of cholesterol termed low-density lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as \u201cbad\u201d cholesterol) is removed from the blood by receptor mediated endocytosis. In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because their cells cannot clear the chemical from their blood.\n

Exocytosis<\/h1>\nIn contrast to these methods of moving material into a cell is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis <\/strong>is the opposite of the processes discussed above in that its purpose is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid. A particle enveloped in membrane fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane. This fusion opens the membranous envelope to the exterior of the cell, and the particle is expelled into the extracellular space (Figure 8<\/strong>).\n\n\u00a0<\/strong>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_83\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"265\"]\"exocytosis\" Figure 8<\/strong> In exocytosis, a vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, binds, and releases its contents to the outside of the cell. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)[\/caption]\n\n[h5p id=\"134\"]\n\n[h5p id=\"135\"]\n

References<\/h1>\nUnless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.\n\nText adapted from: OpenStax, Concepts of Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 18, 2016 http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@9.10","rendered":"

Active transport <\/strong>mechanisms require the use of the cell\u2019s energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). If a substance must move into the cell against its concentration gradient, that is, if the concentration of the substance inside the cell must be greater than its concentration in the extracellular fluid, the cell must use energy to move the substance. Some active transport mechanisms move small-molecular weight material, such as ions, through the membrane.<\/p>\n

In addition to moving small ions and molecules through the membrane, cells also need to remove and take in larger molecules and particles. Some cells are even capable of engulfing entire unicellular microorganisms. You might have correctly hypothesized that the uptake and release of large particles by the cell requires energy. A large particle, however, cannot pass through the membrane, even with energy supplied by the cell.<\/p>\n

Electrochemical Gradient<\/h1>\n

We have discussed simple concentration gradients\u2014differential concentrations of a substance across a space or a membrane. However, in living systems gradients are more complex. Cells contain many proteins, most of which are negatively charged.\u00a0 Due to these negatively charged proteins, coupled with the movement of ions into and out of cells, there is an electrical gradient (a difference of charge) across the plasma membrane. The interior of living cells is electrically negative as compared to the extracellular fluid in which cells are bathed; at the same time, cells contain higher concentrations of potassium (K+) and lower concentrations of sodium (Na+) than does the extracellular fluid. Thus, in a living cell, the concentration gradient and electrical gradient of Na+ promotes diffusion of the ion into the cell, and the electrical gradient of Na+ (a positive ion) tends to drive it inward to the negatively charged interior. The situation is more complex, however, for other elements such as potassium. The electrical gradient of K+ promotes diffusion of the ion into <\/em>the cell, but the concentration gradient of K+ promotes diffusion out <\/em>of the cell (Figure 5<\/strong>). The combined gradient that affects an ion is called its electrochemical gradient<\/strong>, and it is especially important to muscle and nerve cells.<\/p>\n

\"figure_03_23
Figure 5<\/strong> Electrochemical gradients arise from the combined effects of concentration gradients and electrical gradients. (credit: modification of work by \u201cSynaptitude\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Moving Against a Gradient<\/h1>\n

To move substances against a concentration or an electrochemical gradient, the cell must use energy. This energy is harvested from ATP that is generated through cellular metabolism. Active transport mechanisms, collectively called pumps or carrier proteins, work against electrochemical gradients. With the exception of ions, small substances constantly pass through plasma membranes. Active transport maintains concentrations of ions and other substances needed by living cells in the face of these passive changes. Much of a cell\u2019s supply of metabolic energy may be spent maintaining these processes. As active transport mechanisms depend on cellular metabolism for energy, they are sensitive to many metabolic poisons that interfere with the supply of ATP.<\/p>\n

Two mechanisms exist for the transport of small-molecular weight material and macromolecules. Primary active transport<\/strong> moves ions across a membrane and creates a difference in charge across that membrane. The primary active transport system uses ATP to move a substance, such as an ion, into the cell, and often at the same time, a second substance is moved out of the cell. The sodium-potassium pump, an important pump in animal cells, expends energy to move potassium ions into the cell and a different number of sodium ions out of the cell (Figure 6<\/strong>). The action of this pump results in a concentration and charge difference across the membrane.<\/p>\n

Secondary active transport<\/strong> describes the movement of material using the energy of the electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport. Using the energy of the electrochemical gradient created by the primary active transport system, other substances such as amino acids and glucose can be brought into the cell through membrane channels. ATP itself is formed through secondary active transport using a hydrogen ion gradient in the mitochondrion.<\/p>\n

Endocytosis<\/h1>\n

Endocytosis <\/strong>is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of cells, and even whole cells, into a cell. There are different variations of endocytosis, but all share a common characteristic: The plasma membrane of the cell invaginates, forming a pocket around the target particle. The pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle being contained in a newly created vacuole that is formed from the plasma membrane.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Figure 7<\/strong> Three variations of endocytosis are shown. (a) In one form of endocytosis, phagocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds the particle and pinches off to form an intracellular vacuole. (b) In another type of endocytosis, pinocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds a small volume of fluid and pinches off, forming a vesicle. (c) In receptor-mediated endocytosis, uptake of substances by the cell is targeted to a single type of substance that binds at the receptor on the external cell membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Phagocytosis <\/strong>is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell. For example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil removes the invader through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is then destroyed by the neutrophil (Figure 7<\/strong>a).<\/p>\n

A variation of endocytosis is called pinocytosis<\/strong>. This literally means \u201ccell drinking\u201d and was named at a time when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in extracellular fluid. In reality, this process takes in solutes that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid (Figure 7<\/strong>b).<\/p>\n

A targeted variation of endocytosis employs binding proteins in the plasma membrane that are specific for certain substances (Figure 7<\/strong>c). The particles bind to the proteins and the plasma membrane invaginates, bringing the substance and the proteins into the cell. If passage across the membrane of the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis <\/strong>is ineffective, it will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration.<\/p>\n

Some human diseases are caused by a failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example, the form of cholesterol termed low-density lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as \u201cbad\u201d cholesterol) is removed from the blood by receptor mediated endocytosis. In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because their cells cannot clear the chemical from their blood.<\/p>\n

Exocytosis<\/h1>\n

In contrast to these methods of moving material into a cell is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis <\/strong>is the opposite of the processes discussed above in that its purpose is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid. A particle enveloped in membrane fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane. This fusion opens the membranous envelope to the exterior of the cell, and the particle is expelled into the extracellular space (Figure 8<\/strong>).<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"exocytosis\"
Figure 8<\/strong> In exocytosis, a vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, binds, and releases its contents to the outside of the cell. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n