{"id":126,"date":"2022-04-05T14:53:09","date_gmt":"2022-04-05T14:53:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/chapter\/exploring-types-of-support\/"},"modified":"2026-07-22T18:35:39","modified_gmt":"2026-07-22T18:35:39","slug":"exploring-types-of-support","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/chapter\/exploring-types-of-support\/","title":{"raw":"7.3 Exploring Types of Support","rendered":"7.3 Exploring Types of Support"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>7.3 Exploring Types of Support<\/h2>\r\nNow that we\u2019ve explained why support is important, let\u2019s examine the various types of support that speakers often use within a speech: facts and statistics, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies.\r\n<h3>Using Facts and Statistics in Your Speech<\/h3>\r\nFacts and statistics are powerful tools for supporting your message. A fact is a verified truth, often introduced with phrases like \u201cDid you know that\u2026?\u201d to grab attention. Many facts are backed by statistics, which involve collecting and analyzing numerical data, such as how many people use a product, how often something happens, or how trends change over time.\r\n\r\nStatistics influence much of our daily lives, from laws and healthcare to education and consumer habits. While this textbook does not explore statistical methods in depth, consider taking a course in statistics or quantitative research if you are interested in conducting your own data analysis.\r\n\r\nEven without formal training, you can easily find useful statistics online. However, statistics are often misused or misunderstood. To avoid misleading your audience:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Be honest:<\/strong> Do not cherry-pick or distort data.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Double-check the mathematics:<\/strong> Errors in percentages or decimal placement can happen.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Evaluate your sources:<\/strong> Use the CRAAP Method to assess credibility.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<blockquote>\u201cThere are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.\u201d\r\n\r\n<cite>Mark Twain<\/cite><\/blockquote>\r\nUse statistics wisely to inform rather than confuse your audience.\r\n<h3>Definitions<\/h3>\r\nDefinitions are important for providing clarity to your audience. Effective speakers balance using definitions when they are needed to increase audience understanding with omitting definitions for terms the audience is likely to know.\r\n\r\nFor example, you may need to define what a \u201cclaw hammer\u201d is when speaking to a group of Cub Scouts learning about basic tools. However, defining the term for a group of carpenters who use claw hammers every day may appear unnecessary or condescending.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, assuming that others understand every term you use can also lead to ineffective communication. Medical doctors, for example, are sometimes criticized for using technical terminology when speaking with patients without taking the time to define it. Patients may leave without fully understanding their health situation or what actions they need to take.\r\n\r\nFor the purposes of public speaking, four types of definitions may be used as support: lexical, persuasive, stipulative, and theoretical.\r\n<h4>Lexical Definitions<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"2073\"]<strong>Lexical definitions<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]are dictionary-style definitions that explain how a word is commonly used in a language. For example, \u201cspeech\u201d might be defined as oral communication or the act of speaking before an audience.\r\n\r\nLexical definitions are useful for clarifying basic terms, but it is often helpful to follow them with your own explanation to make the meaning more relatable.\r\n<h4>Persuasive Definitions<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"754\"]<strong>Persuasive definitions<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]are crafted to influence how an audience feels about a term. Politicians and marketers often use them to reframe ideas in a more appealing or strategic way.\r\n\r\nFor instance, calling \u201coil drilling\u201d <em>energy exploration<\/em> or calling an \u201cestate tax\u201d a <em>death tax<\/em> can influence public perception by changing the emotional tone associated with the term.\r\n<h4>Stipulative Definitions<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"770\"]<strong>Stipulative definitions<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary] are assigned by the person who creates or introduces a new term. For example, the \u201cPeter Principle,\u201d coined by Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, was defined by them as follows:\r\n<blockquote>\u201cIn a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.\u201d\r\n\r\n<cite>Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull<\/cite><\/blockquote>\r\nBecause Peter and Hull introduced the term, their assigned meaning serves as its stipulative definition.\r\n<h4>Theoretical Definitions<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"778\"]<strong>Theoretical definitions<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary] attempt to explain all aspects of a concept, often in abstract or philosophical terms. Defining a concept such as \u201cpeace\u201d in a way that accounts for every possible interpretation would be considered theoretical.\r\n\r\nThese definitions are often broad and complex because they are used to explore deep or layered ideas.\r\n\r\nUnderstanding and selecting the appropriate type of definition helps you communicate clearly and persuasively, especially when your audience may not be familiar with the terminology you are using.\r\n<h3>Examples<\/h3>\r\nAnother commonly used type of support is an example. An example is a specific situation, problem, or story designed to illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon.\r\n\r\nExamples can make abstract ideas more concrete by providing audiences with specific cases. Four common types of examples used as support are positive examples, negative examples, nonexamples, and best examples.\r\n<h4>Positive Examples<\/h4>\r\nA <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"760\"]positive example[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> clarifies or illustrates a principle, method, or phenomenon by showing a desirable solution, decision, or course of action.\r\n\r\nA speaker discussing crisis management might explain how a local politician responded appropriately after a newspaper reported that her husband was having an affair. The speaker might also describe a professional baseball player who immediately admitted to using steroids.\r\n\r\nThese examples provide positive models of how an organization or individual could respond during a crisis.\r\n<h4>Negative Examples<\/h4>\r\nA [pb_glossary id=\"748\"]negative example[\/pb_glossary] illustrates what not to do. A speaker discussing crisis management might examine the lack of communication from Union Carbide during the 1984 tragedy in Bhopal, India, or problems with the United States government\u2019s response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.\r\n\r\nThe purpose of a negative example is to demonstrate an undesirable solution, decision, or course of action.\r\n<h4>Nonexamples<\/h4>\r\nA [pb_glossary id=\"750\"]nonexample[\/pb_glossary] explains what something is not. When discussing crisis management, for instance, a speaker might identify a press release announcing an Adobe Acrobat software upgrade as a form of corporate communication that is not crisis management.\r\n\r\nThis nonexample helps the audience distinguish crisis management from other forms of corporate communication.\r\n<h4>Best Examples<\/h4>\r\nA [pb_glossary id=\"329\"]best example[\/pb_glossary] demonstrates what is considered the most effective way to behave within a specific context.\r\n\r\nFor example, a speaker discussing crisis management could present a video clip of a chief executive officer communicating effectively during a press conference. The clip could model appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors for responding to a crisis.\r\n\r\nPositive examples show appropriate ways to behave, while best examples illustrate what is presented as the most effective approach in a particular situation.\r\n<h4>What to Consider When Using Examples<\/h4>\r\nAlthough examples can help audiences understand abstract or unfamiliar concepts, they have one major limitation: audience members may dismiss them as unusual cases that do not represent what ordinarily happens.\r\n\r\nFor example, some opponents of wearing seat belts claim that not wearing a seat belt could prevent someone from becoming trapped in a car that catches fire. Even if a speaker identifies a specific accident in which this occurred, audience members may regard it as a rare exception and not consider it strong support.\r\n\r\nSimply finding an example is not enough. An effective speaker must consider how the audience is likely to respond to the example and how it relates to the audience\u2019s existing knowledge.\r\n<h3>Narratives<\/h3>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"746\"]Narratives[\/pb_glossary], or stories, are a powerful form of support in public speaking. Unlike brief examples, narratives have a clear beginning, middle, and end. They can help audiences connect with a message on a deeper level.\r\n\r\nWhether you are informing, persuading, or entertaining, stories can make your speech more relatable and memorable.\r\n\r\nCommunication scholars such as Clella Jaffe and Walter Fisher emphasize that storytelling is central to how humans understand the world. Fisher described humans as \u201cstorytelling animals,\u201d which helps explain why narratives resonate so strongly with audiences.\r\n\r\nEthical storytelling is important. Always clarify whether a story is factual or hypothetical and whether it describes your own experience or someone else\u2019s. Presenting another person\u2019s experience as your own can damage your credibility.\r\n\r\nThere are three primary types of narratives:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>[pb_glossary id=\"740\"]Informative narratives[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> explain or illustrate a concept. For example, the story of Newton and the falling apple helps people understand the concept of gravity, even if the story\u2019s details are not scientifically precise.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>[pb_glossary id=\"756\"]Persuasive narratives[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> attempt to influence beliefs or behaviors. Religious parables, fables, and fairy tales often teach moral lessons. Aesop\u2019s \u201cThe Farmer and the Snake,\u201d for example, warns against trusting someone who has previously caused harm.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>[pb_glossary id=\"726\"]Entertaining narratives[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are intended to amuse or captivate. Comedians and motivational speakers often use personal stories to connect with audiences. These narratives should still support the speech\u2019s overall purpose.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nNarratives are more than stories. They are tools that help audiences understand, feel, and remember a speaker\u2019s message.\r\n<h3>Testimony<\/h3>\r\nAnother form of support you may use during a speech is testimony. In this textbook, <em>testimony<\/em> refers to expert opinions or direct accounts from witnesses that provide support for a speech.\r\n\r\nThe two primary forms are expert testimony and eyewitness testimony.\r\n<h4>Using Testimony in Your Speech<\/h4>\r\nTestimony can strengthen a speech by adding credibility and real-world perspectives.\r\n<h4>Expert Testimony<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"732\"]Expert testimony[\/pb_glossary] comes from a person recognized as knowledgeable in a particular field.\r\n\r\nFor example, citing a report by former U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Regina Benjamin in a speech about childhood obesity and mandatory physical education could add authority to the speaker\u2019s argument.\r\n\r\nExpert testimony can validate a speaker\u2019s claims and demonstrate that the ideas are supported by credible sources.\r\n<h4>Eyewitness Testimony<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"734\"]Eyewitness testimony[\/pb_glossary] is a firsthand account from someone who directly experienced an event.\r\n\r\nFor instance, a person who flew over the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and described what they observed would be providing eyewitness testimony.\r\n\r\nAlthough eyewitness testimony can be compelling, it is subjective and may be influenced by memory, bias, or the passage of time. Speakers should clarify who the witness is, when the event occurred, and how the testimony was obtained.\r\n\r\nEyewitness accounts can also be unreliable. Mistaken eyewitness identifications have contributed to wrongful convictions that were later overturned through DNA evidence.\r\n\r\nExpert testimony can build credibility, while eyewitness testimony can add immediacy. Both forms should be used ethically, carefully, and alongside other supporting evidence whenever possible.\r\n<h3>Analogies<\/h3>\r\nAn [pb_glossary id=\"2074\"]analogy[\/pb_glossary] is a figure of speech that compares two ideas or objects by showing how they are similar. In public speaking, analogies may also be based on logic.\r\n\r\nThe logical use of an analogy begins with the idea that two objects or concepts share certain characteristics. The speaker then proposes that they may also be similar in other relevant ways.\r\n\r\nSpeakers can use two primary types of analogies: figurative and literal.\r\n<h4>Figurative Analogies<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"738\"]Figurative analogies[\/pb_glossary] compare things from different categories. For example, a speaker might say that a new airplane is like an eagle.\r\n\r\nAlthough figurative analogies can be vivid and imaginative, they can also be risky. If a comparison appears exaggerated, inaccurate, or misleading, the audience may reject the speaker\u2019s point.\r\n\r\nFor example, comparing public health requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic to living in Nazi Germany is historically inaccurate and may be deeply offensive. Figurative analogies should be used carefully and supported with more concrete evidence.\r\n<h4>Literal Analogies<\/h4>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"744\"]Literal analogies[\/pb_glossary] compare things within the same category. For example, a speaker proposing a new fast-food brand might compare it with McDonald\u2019s or Subway because all three businesses belong to the same industry.\r\n\r\nA literal analogy can help audiences form logical connections and may strengthen an argument when the comparison is valid and the similarities are relevant.\r\n\r\nFigurative analogies can add vividness, while literal analogies are generally more dependable for developing logical support. Both should be clear, relevant, and supported by credible evidence.\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<h2>Licenses and Attribution<\/h2>\r\n<h3>CC Licensed Content, Original<\/h3>\r\n<em>Speech Communication<\/em> was created by Lana Iapicco and Marie Torres. Independently created original and AI-assisted content developed specifically for this book is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License<\/a>, except where otherwise noted.\r\n\r\nThis educational material includes content generated or revised with the assistance of large language models. Lana Iapicco and Marie Torres reviewed, edited, and take responsibility for the final published content.\r\n<h3>CC Licensed Content, Previously Shared<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Exploring Types of Support<\/h4>\r\n\u201c7.3 Exploring Types of Support\u201d by Douglas Marshall, James Yeargain, June Pulliam, Sara Kim, and Victoria VanNest, published in <em>It\u2019s About Them: Public Speaking in the 21st Century<\/em> by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network, was adapted for this section.\r\n\r\nThe source material is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>. The material was revised, reorganized, condensed, and supplemented with original and AI-assisted content for this edition.\r\n\r\nAdapted portions derived from this source, including revisions to those portions, are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Independently created portions developed specifically for <em>Speech Communication<\/em> are licensed under the book\u2019s Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.\r\n<h3>Other Content Included<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm<\/h4>\r\nFisher, W. R. (1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. <em>Communication Monographs, 51<\/em>(1), 1\u201322.\r\n\r\nThis article informed the discussion of narrative as a central way people understand, organize, and communicate human experience. The article remains subject to the rights and terms of its author and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.\r\n<h4>Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society<\/h4>\r\nJaffe, C. (2020). <em>Public speaking: Concepts and skills for a diverse society<\/em> (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.\r\n\r\nThis source informed the discussion of narratives, storytelling, and forms of supporting material used in public speaking. The publication remains subject to the rights and terms of its author and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.\r\n<h4>The Art of Public Speaking<\/h4>\r\nLucas, S. E. (2023). <em>The art of public speaking<\/em> (13th ed.). McGraw Hill.\r\n\r\nThis source informed the discussion of facts, statistics, definitions, examples, testimony, analogies, and other forms of supporting material. The publication remains subject to the rights and terms of its author and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.\r\n<h4>The CRAAP Test<\/h4>\r\nMeriam Library, California State University, Chico. (n.d.). <em>Evaluating information: The CRAAP test<\/em>.\r\n\r\nThe CRAAP method\u2014currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose\u2014is referenced as a framework for evaluating the quality and credibility of information. The webpage and related materials remain subject to the rights and terms of California State University, Chico.\r\n<h4>Stand Up, Speak Out<\/h4>\r\nOpenStax. (2020). <em>Stand up, speak out: The practice and ethics of public speaking<\/em>. Rice University.\r\n\r\nThis resource informed the discussion of supporting materials, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies. It remains subject to the license and attribution information provided by OpenStax.\r\n<h4>The Peter Principle<\/h4>\r\nPeter, L. J., &amp; Hull, R. (1969). <em>The Peter principle: Why things always go wrong<\/em>. William Morrow.\r\n\r\nThis source is referenced in the discussion of stipulative definitions and the meaning assigned to the term \u201cPeter Principle.\u201d The publication remains subject to the rights and terms of its authors and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.\r\n<h4>Chapters from My Autobiography<\/h4>\r\nTwain, M. (1906). <em>Chapters from my autobiography<\/em>. Harper &amp; Brothers.\r\n\r\nThis work is cited in connection with the statement about \u201clies, damned lies, and statistics.\u201d The original work is in the public domain in the United States, although particular editions, annotations, and reproductions may be separately protected.\r\n<h3>Third-Party References and Links<\/h3>\r\nHistorical events, public figures, government offices, corporations, organizations, trademarks, products, literary works, and other examples referenced in this section remain the property of their respective authors, publishers, organizations, trademark holders, and copyright holders.\r\n\r\nExamples include Union Carbide, Adobe Acrobat, Hurricane Katrina, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, McDonald\u2019s, Subway, the Office of the U.S. Surgeon General, Aesop\u2019s fables, and other persons, events, and organizations discussed for instructional purposes.\r\n\r\nThe inclusion of these names, examples, quotations, citations, and links does not imply endorsement and does not place the underlying third-party materials under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.\r\n\r\nUnless a separate license is specifically identified, third-party content may not be copied, redistributed, or adapted independently of the permissions provided by its copyright holder or applicable law.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<h2>7.3 Exploring Types of Support<\/h2>\n<p>Now that we\u2019ve explained why support is important, let\u2019s examine the various types of support that speakers often use within a speech: facts and statistics, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies.<\/p>\n<h3>Using Facts and Statistics in Your Speech<\/h3>\n<p>Facts and statistics are powerful tools for supporting your message. A fact is a verified truth, often introduced with phrases like \u201cDid you know that\u2026?\u201d to grab attention. Many facts are backed by statistics, which involve collecting and analyzing numerical data, such as how many people use a product, how often something happens, or how trends change over time.<\/p>\n<p>Statistics influence much of our daily lives, from laws and healthcare to education and consumer habits. While this textbook does not explore statistical methods in depth, consider taking a course in statistics or quantitative research if you are interested in conducting your own data analysis.<\/p>\n<p>Even without formal training, you can easily find useful statistics online. However, statistics are often misused or misunderstood. To avoid misleading your audience:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Be honest:<\/strong> Do not cherry-pick or distort data.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Double-check the mathematics:<\/strong> Errors in percentages or decimal placement can happen.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Evaluate your sources:<\/strong> Use the CRAAP Method to assess credibility.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote><p>\u201cThere are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>Mark Twain<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Use statistics wisely to inform rather than confuse your audience.<\/p>\n<h3>Definitions<\/h3>\n<p>Definitions are important for providing clarity to your audience. Effective speakers balance using definitions when they are needed to increase audience understanding with omitting definitions for terms the audience is likely to know.<\/p>\n<p>For example, you may need to define what a \u201cclaw hammer\u201d is when speaking to a group of Cub Scouts learning about basic tools. However, defining the term for a group of carpenters who use claw hammers every day may appear unnecessary or condescending.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, assuming that others understand every term you use can also lead to ineffective communication. Medical doctors, for example, are sometimes criticized for using technical terminology when speaking with patients without taking the time to define it. Patients may leave without fully understanding their health situation or what actions they need to take.<\/p>\n<p>For the purposes of public speaking, four types of definitions may be used as support: lexical, persuasive, stipulative, and theoretical.<\/p>\n<h4>Lexical Definitions<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-2073\"><strong>Lexical definitions<\/strong> <\/button>are dictionary-style definitions that explain how a word is commonly used in a language. For example, \u201cspeech\u201d might be defined as oral communication or the act of speaking before an audience.<\/p>\n<p>Lexical definitions are useful for clarifying basic terms, but it is often helpful to follow them with your own explanation to make the meaning more relatable.<\/p>\n<h4>Persuasive Definitions<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-754\"><strong>Persuasive definitions<\/strong> <\/button>are crafted to influence how an audience feels about a term. Politicians and marketers often use them to reframe ideas in a more appealing or strategic way.<\/p>\n<p>For instance, calling \u201coil drilling\u201d <em>energy exploration<\/em> or calling an \u201cestate tax\u201d a <em>death tax<\/em> can influence public perception by changing the emotional tone associated with the term.<\/p>\n<h4>Stipulative Definitions<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-770\"><strong>Stipulative definitions<\/strong><\/button> are assigned by the person who creates or introduces a new term. For example, the \u201cPeter Principle,\u201d coined by Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, was defined by them as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u201cIn a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Because Peter and Hull introduced the term, their assigned meaning serves as its stipulative definition.<\/p>\n<h4>Theoretical Definitions<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-778\"><strong>Theoretical definitions<\/strong><\/button> attempt to explain all aspects of a concept, often in abstract or philosophical terms. Defining a concept such as \u201cpeace\u201d in a way that accounts for every possible interpretation would be considered theoretical.<\/p>\n<p>These definitions are often broad and complex because they are used to explore deep or layered ideas.<\/p>\n<p>Understanding and selecting the appropriate type of definition helps you communicate clearly and persuasively, especially when your audience may not be familiar with the terminology you are using.<\/p>\n<h3>Examples<\/h3>\n<p>Another commonly used type of support is an example. An example is a specific situation, problem, or story designed to illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon.<\/p>\n<p>Examples can make abstract ideas more concrete by providing audiences with specific cases. Four common types of examples used as support are positive examples, negative examples, nonexamples, and best examples.<\/p>\n<h4>Positive Examples<\/h4>\n<p>A <strong><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-760\">positive example<\/button><\/strong> clarifies or illustrates a principle, method, or phenomenon by showing a desirable solution, decision, or course of action.<\/p>\n<p>A speaker discussing crisis management might explain how a local politician responded appropriately after a newspaper reported that her husband was having an affair. The speaker might also describe a professional baseball player who immediately admitted to using steroids.<\/p>\n<p>These examples provide positive models of how an organization or individual could respond during a crisis.<\/p>\n<h4>Negative Examples<\/h4>\n<p>A <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-748\">negative example<\/button> illustrates what not to do. A speaker discussing crisis management might examine the lack of communication from Union Carbide during the 1984 tragedy in Bhopal, India, or problems with the United States government\u2019s response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of a negative example is to demonstrate an undesirable solution, decision, or course of action.<\/p>\n<h4>Nonexamples<\/h4>\n<p>A <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-750\">nonexample<\/button> explains what something is not. When discussing crisis management, for instance, a speaker might identify a press release announcing an Adobe Acrobat software upgrade as a form of corporate communication that is not crisis management.<\/p>\n<p>This nonexample helps the audience distinguish crisis management from other forms of corporate communication.<\/p>\n<h4>Best Examples<\/h4>\n<p>A <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-329\">best example<\/button> demonstrates what is considered the most effective way to behave within a specific context.<\/p>\n<p>For example, a speaker discussing crisis management could present a video clip of a chief executive officer communicating effectively during a press conference. The clip could model appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors for responding to a crisis.<\/p>\n<p>Positive examples show appropriate ways to behave, while best examples illustrate what is presented as the most effective approach in a particular situation.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Consider When Using Examples<\/h4>\n<p>Although examples can help audiences understand abstract or unfamiliar concepts, they have one major limitation: audience members may dismiss them as unusual cases that do not represent what ordinarily happens.<\/p>\n<p>For example, some opponents of wearing seat belts claim that not wearing a seat belt could prevent someone from becoming trapped in a car that catches fire. Even if a speaker identifies a specific accident in which this occurred, audience members may regard it as a rare exception and not consider it strong support.<\/p>\n<p>Simply finding an example is not enough. An effective speaker must consider how the audience is likely to respond to the example and how it relates to the audience\u2019s existing knowledge.<\/p>\n<h3>Narratives<\/h3>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-746\">Narratives<\/button>, or stories, are a powerful form of support in public speaking. Unlike brief examples, narratives have a clear beginning, middle, and end. They can help audiences connect with a message on a deeper level.<\/p>\n<p>Whether you are informing, persuading, or entertaining, stories can make your speech more relatable and memorable.<\/p>\n<p>Communication scholars such as Clella Jaffe and Walter Fisher emphasize that storytelling is central to how humans understand the world. Fisher described humans as \u201cstorytelling animals,\u201d which helps explain why narratives resonate so strongly with audiences.<\/p>\n<p>Ethical storytelling is important. Always clarify whether a story is factual or hypothetical and whether it describes your own experience or someone else\u2019s. Presenting another person\u2019s experience as your own can damage your credibility.<\/p>\n<p>There are three primary types of narratives:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-740\">Informative narratives<\/button><\/strong> explain or illustrate a concept. For example, the story of Newton and the falling apple helps people understand the concept of gravity, even if the story\u2019s details are not scientifically precise.<\/li>\n<li><strong><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-756\">Persuasive narratives<\/button><\/strong> attempt to influence beliefs or behaviors. Religious parables, fables, and fairy tales often teach moral lessons. Aesop\u2019s \u201cThe Farmer and the Snake,\u201d for example, warns against trusting someone who has previously caused harm.<\/li>\n<li><strong><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-726\">Entertaining narratives<\/button><\/strong> are intended to amuse or captivate. Comedians and motivational speakers often use personal stories to connect with audiences. These narratives should still support the speech\u2019s overall purpose.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Narratives are more than stories. They are tools that help audiences understand, feel, and remember a speaker\u2019s message.<\/p>\n<h3>Testimony<\/h3>\n<p>Another form of support you may use during a speech is testimony. In this textbook, <em>testimony<\/em> refers to expert opinions or direct accounts from witnesses that provide support for a speech.<\/p>\n<p>The two primary forms are expert testimony and eyewitness testimony.<\/p>\n<h4>Using Testimony in Your Speech<\/h4>\n<p>Testimony can strengthen a speech by adding credibility and real-world perspectives.<\/p>\n<h4>Expert Testimony<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-732\">Expert testimony<\/button> comes from a person recognized as knowledgeable in a particular field.<\/p>\n<p>For example, citing a report by former U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Regina Benjamin in a speech about childhood obesity and mandatory physical education could add authority to the speaker\u2019s argument.<\/p>\n<p>Expert testimony can validate a speaker\u2019s claims and demonstrate that the ideas are supported by credible sources.<\/p>\n<h4>Eyewitness Testimony<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-734\">Eyewitness testimony<\/button> is a firsthand account from someone who directly experienced an event.<\/p>\n<p>For instance, a person who flew over the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and described what they observed would be providing eyewitness testimony.<\/p>\n<p>Although eyewitness testimony can be compelling, it is subjective and may be influenced by memory, bias, or the passage of time. Speakers should clarify who the witness is, when the event occurred, and how the testimony was obtained.<\/p>\n<p>Eyewitness accounts can also be unreliable. Mistaken eyewitness identifications have contributed to wrongful convictions that were later overturned through DNA evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Expert testimony can build credibility, while eyewitness testimony can add immediacy. Both forms should be used ethically, carefully, and alongside other supporting evidence whenever possible.<\/p>\n<h3>Analogies<\/h3>\n<p>An <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-2074\">analogy<\/button> is a figure of speech that compares two ideas or objects by showing how they are similar. In public speaking, analogies may also be based on logic.<\/p>\n<p>The logical use of an analogy begins with the idea that two objects or concepts share certain characteristics. The speaker then proposes that they may also be similar in other relevant ways.<\/p>\n<p>Speakers can use two primary types of analogies: figurative and literal.<\/p>\n<h4>Figurative Analogies<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-738\">Figurative analogies<\/button> compare things from different categories. For example, a speaker might say that a new airplane is like an eagle.<\/p>\n<p>Although figurative analogies can be vivid and imaginative, they can also be risky. If a comparison appears exaggerated, inaccurate, or misleading, the audience may reject the speaker\u2019s point.<\/p>\n<p>For example, comparing public health requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic to living in Nazi Germany is historically inaccurate and may be deeply offensive. Figurative analogies should be used carefully and supported with more concrete evidence.<\/p>\n<h4>Literal Analogies<\/h4>\n<p><button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"126-744\">Literal analogies<\/button> compare things within the same category. For example, a speaker proposing a new fast-food brand might compare it with McDonald\u2019s or Subway because all three businesses belong to the same industry.<\/p>\n<p>A literal analogy can help audiences form logical connections and may strengthen an argument when the comparison is valid and the similarities are relevant.<\/p>\n<p>Figurative analogies can add vividness, while literal analogies are generally more dependable for developing logical support. Both should be clear, relevant, and supported by credible evidence.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<h2>Licenses and Attribution<\/h2>\n<h3>CC Licensed Content, Original<\/h3>\n<p><em>Speech Communication<\/em> was created by Lana Iapicco and Marie Torres. Independently created original and AI-assisted content developed specifically for this book is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License<\/a>, except where otherwise noted.<\/p>\n<p>This educational material includes content generated or revised with the assistance of large language models. Lana Iapicco and Marie Torres reviewed, edited, and take responsibility for the final published content.<\/p>\n<h3>CC Licensed Content, Previously Shared<\/h3>\n<h4>Exploring Types of Support<\/h4>\n<p>\u201c7.3 Exploring Types of Support\u201d by Douglas Marshall, James Yeargain, June Pulliam, Sara Kim, and Victoria VanNest, published in <em>It\u2019s About Them: Public Speaking in the 21st Century<\/em> by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network, was adapted for this section.<\/p>\n<p>The source material is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>. The material was revised, reorganized, condensed, and supplemented with original and AI-assisted content for this edition.<\/p>\n<p>Adapted portions derived from this source, including revisions to those portions, are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Independently created portions developed specifically for <em>Speech Communication<\/em> are licensed under the book\u2019s Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.<\/p>\n<h3>Other Content Included<\/h3>\n<h4>Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm<\/h4>\n<p>Fisher, W. R. (1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. <em>Communication Monographs, 51<\/em>(1), 1\u201322.<\/p>\n<p>This article informed the discussion of narrative as a central way people understand, organize, and communicate human experience. The article remains subject to the rights and terms of its author and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h4>Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society<\/h4>\n<p>Jaffe, C. (2020). <em>Public speaking: Concepts and skills for a diverse society<\/em> (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.<\/p>\n<p>This source informed the discussion of narratives, storytelling, and forms of supporting material used in public speaking. The publication remains subject to the rights and terms of its author and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h4>The Art of Public Speaking<\/h4>\n<p>Lucas, S. E. (2023). <em>The art of public speaking<\/em> (13th ed.). McGraw Hill.<\/p>\n<p>This source informed the discussion of facts, statistics, definitions, examples, testimony, analogies, and other forms of supporting material. The publication remains subject to the rights and terms of its author and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h4>The CRAAP Test<\/h4>\n<p>Meriam Library, California State University, Chico. (n.d.). <em>Evaluating information: The CRAAP test<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>The CRAAP method\u2014currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose\u2014is referenced as a framework for evaluating the quality and credibility of information. The webpage and related materials remain subject to the rights and terms of California State University, Chico.<\/p>\n<h4>Stand Up, Speak Out<\/h4>\n<p>OpenStax. (2020). <em>Stand up, speak out: The practice and ethics of public speaking<\/em>. Rice University.<\/p>\n<p>This resource informed the discussion of supporting materials, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies. It remains subject to the license and attribution information provided by OpenStax.<\/p>\n<h4>The Peter Principle<\/h4>\n<p>Peter, L. J., &amp; Hull, R. (1969). <em>The Peter principle: Why things always go wrong<\/em>. William Morrow.<\/p>\n<p>This source is referenced in the discussion of stipulative definitions and the meaning assigned to the term \u201cPeter Principle.\u201d The publication remains subject to the rights and terms of its authors and publisher and is not included under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h4>Chapters from My Autobiography<\/h4>\n<p>Twain, M. (1906). <em>Chapters from my autobiography<\/em>. Harper &amp; Brothers.<\/p>\n<p>This work is cited in connection with the statement about \u201clies, damned lies, and statistics.\u201d The original work is in the public domain in the United States, although particular editions, annotations, and reproductions may be separately protected.<\/p>\n<h3>Third-Party References and Links<\/h3>\n<p>Historical events, public figures, government offices, corporations, organizations, trademarks, products, literary works, and other examples referenced in this section remain the property of their respective authors, publishers, organizations, trademark holders, and copyright holders.<\/p>\n<p>Examples include Union Carbide, Adobe Acrobat, Hurricane Katrina, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, McDonald\u2019s, Subway, the Office of the U.S. Surgeon General, Aesop\u2019s fables, and other persons, events, and organizations discussed for instructional purposes.<\/p>\n<p>The inclusion of these names, examples, quotations, citations, and links does not imply endorsement and does not place the underlying third-party materials under the Creative Commons licenses applied to <em>Speech Communication<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>Unless a separate license is specifically identified, third-party content may not be copied, redistributed, or adapted independently of the permissions provided by its copyright holder or applicable law.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-2073\" hidden><p>A dictionary-style explanation of how a word is commonly understood and used in a language.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-754\" hidden><p>motivate an audience to think in a specific manner about the word or term<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-770\" hidden><p>assigned to a word or term by the person who coins that word or term for the first time<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-778\" hidden><p>used to describe all parts related to a particular type of idea or object<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-760\" hidden><p>used to clarify or clearly illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-748\" hidden><p>used to illustrate what not to do<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-750\" hidden><p>used to explain what something is not<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-329\" hidden><p>demonstrates the \u201cbest\u201d way someone should behave within a specific context<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-746\" hidden><p>stories that help an audience understand the speaker\u2019s message<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-740\" hidden><p>provide information or explanations about a speaker\u2019s topic<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-756\" hidden><p>stories used to persuade people to accept or reject a specific attitude, value, belief, or behavior<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-726\" hidden><p>stories designed purely to delight an audience and transport them from their daily concerns<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-732\" hidden><p>expresses the attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors recommended by someone who is an acknowledged expert on a topic<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-734\" hidden><p>given by someone who has direct contact with the phenomenon of your speech topic<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-2074\" hidden><p>Figure of speech that compares two ideas or objects by showing how they are similar<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-738\" hidden><p>compare two ideas or objects from two different classes, or a group that has common attributes, characteristics, qualities, or traits<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"126-744\" hidden><p>compare two objects or ideas that clearly belong to the same class<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["liapicco","mtorres54"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[61,62],"license":[57],"class_list":["post-126","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-liapicco","contributor-mtorres54","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":118,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/126","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":20,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/126\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2075,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/126\/revisions\/2075"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/118"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/126\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=126"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=126"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=126"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hcfl.edu\/speechcomm\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=126"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}