7.3 Exploring Types of Support

7.3 Exploring Types of Support

Now that we’ve explained why support is important, let’s examine the various types of support that speakers often use within a speech: facts and statistics, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies.

Using Facts and Statistics in Your Speech

Facts and statistics are powerful tools for supporting your message. A fact is a verified truth, often introduced with phrases like “Did you know that…?” to grab attention. Many facts are backed by statistics, which involve collecting and analyzing numerical data, such as how many people use a product, how often something happens, or how trends change over time.

Statistics influence much of our daily lives, from laws and healthcare to education and consumer habits. While this textbook does not explore statistical methods in depth, consider taking a course in statistics or quantitative research if you are interested in conducting your own data analysis.

Even without formal training, you can easily find useful statistics online. However, statistics are often misused or misunderstood. To avoid misleading your audience:

• Be honest: Do not cherry-pick or distort data.
• Double-check the mathematics: Errors in percentages or decimal placement can happen.
• Evaluate your sources: Use the CRAAP Method to assess credibility.

“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.”

Mark Twain

Use statistics wisely to inform rather than confuse your audience.

Definitions

Definitions are important for providing clarity to your audience. Effective speakers balance using definitions when they are needed to increase audience understanding with omitting definitions for terms the audience is likely to know.

For example, you may need to define what a “claw hammer” is when speaking to a group of Cub Scouts learning about basic tools. However, defining the term for a group of carpenters who use claw hammers every day may appear unnecessary or condescending.

On the other hand, assuming that others understand every term you use can also lead to ineffective communication. Medical doctors, for example, are sometimes criticized for using technical terminology when speaking with patients without taking the time to define it. Patients may leave without fully understanding their health situation or what actions they need to take.

For the purposes of public speaking, four types of definitions may be used as support: lexical, persuasive, stipulative, and theoretical.

Lexical Definitions

Lexical definitions are dictionary-style definitions that explain how a word is commonly used in a language. For example, “speech” might be defined as oral communication or the act of speaking before an audience.

Lexical definitions are useful for clarifying basic terms, but it is often helpful to follow them with your own explanation to make the meaning more relatable.

Persuasive Definitions

Persuasive definitions are crafted to influence how an audience feels about a term. Politicians and marketers often use them to reframe ideas in a more appealing or strategic way.

For instance, calling “oil drilling” energy exploration or calling an “estate tax” a death tax can influence public perception by changing the emotional tone associated with the term.

Stipulative Definitions

Stipulative definitions are assigned by the person who creates or introduces a new term. For example, the “Peter Principle,” coined by Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, was defined by them as follows:

“In a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.”

Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull

Because Peter and Hull introduced the term, their assigned meaning serves as its stipulative definition.

Theoretical Definitions

Theoretical definitions attempt to explain all aspects of a concept, often in abstract or philosophical terms. Defining a concept such as “peace” in a way that accounts for every possible interpretation would be considered theoretical.

These definitions are often broad and complex because they are used to explore deep or layered ideas.

Understanding and selecting the appropriate type of definition helps you communicate clearly and persuasively, especially when your audience may not be familiar with the terminology you are using.

Examples

Another commonly used type of support is an example. An example is a specific situation, problem, or story designed to illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon.

Examples can make abstract ideas more concrete by providing audiences with specific cases. Four common types of examples used as support are positive examples, negative examples, nonexamples, and best examples.

Positive Examples

A positive example clarifies or illustrates a principle, method, or phenomenon by showing a desirable solution, decision, or course of action.

A speaker discussing crisis management might explain how a local politician responded appropriately after a newspaper reported that her husband was having an affair. The speaker might also describe a professional baseball player who immediately admitted to using steroids.

These examples provide positive models of how an organization or individual could respond during a crisis.

Negative Examples

A negative example illustrates what not to do. A speaker discussing crisis management might examine the lack of communication from Union Carbide during the 1984 tragedy in Bhopal, India, or problems with the United States government’s response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

The purpose of a negative example is to demonstrate an undesirable solution, decision, or course of action.

Nonexamples

A nonexample explains what something is not. When discussing crisis management, for instance, a speaker might identify a press release announcing an Adobe Acrobat software upgrade as a form of corporate communication that is not crisis management.

This nonexample helps the audience distinguish crisis management from other forms of corporate communication.

Best Examples

A best example demonstrates what is considered the most effective way to behave within a specific context.

For example, a speaker discussing crisis management could present a video clip of a chief executive officer communicating effectively during a press conference. The clip could model appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors for responding to a crisis.

Positive examples show appropriate ways to behave, while best examples illustrate what is presented as the most effective approach in a particular situation.

What to Consider When Using Examples

Although examples can help audiences understand abstract or unfamiliar concepts, they have one major limitation: audience members may dismiss them as unusual cases that do not represent what ordinarily happens.

For example, some opponents of wearing seat belts claim that not wearing a seat belt could prevent someone from becoming trapped in a car that catches fire. Even if a speaker identifies a specific accident in which this occurred, audience members may regard it as a rare exception and not consider it strong support.

Simply finding an example is not enough. An effective speaker must consider how the audience is likely to respond to the example and how it relates to the audience’s existing knowledge.

Narratives

Narratives, or stories, are a powerful form of support in public speaking. Unlike brief examples, narratives have a clear beginning, middle, and end. They can help audiences connect with a message on a deeper level.

Whether you are informing, persuading, or entertaining, stories can make your speech more relatable and memorable.

Communication scholars such as Clella Jaffe and Walter Fisher emphasize that storytelling is central to how humans understand the world. Fisher described humans as “storytelling animals,” which helps explain why narratives resonate so strongly with audiences.

Ethical storytelling is important. Always clarify whether a story is factual or hypothetical and whether it describes your own experience or someone else’s. Presenting another person’s experience as your own can damage your credibility.

There are three primary types of narratives:

• Informative narratives explain or illustrate a concept. For example, the story of Newton and the falling apple helps people understand the concept of gravity, even if the story’s details are not scientifically precise.
• Persuasive narratives attempt to influence beliefs or behaviors. Religious parables, fables, and fairy tales often teach moral lessons. Aesop’s “The Farmer and the Snake,” for example, warns against trusting someone who has previously caused harm.
• Entertaining narratives are intended to amuse or captivate. Comedians and motivational speakers often use personal stories to connect with audiences. These narratives should still support the speech’s overall purpose.

Narratives are more than stories. They are tools that help audiences understand, feel, and remember a speaker’s message.

Testimony

Another form of support you may use during a speech is testimony. In this textbook, testimony refers to expert opinions or direct accounts from witnesses that provide support for a speech.

The two primary forms are expert testimony and eyewitness testimony.

Using Testimony in Your Speech

Testimony can strengthen a speech by adding credibility and real-world perspectives.

Expert Testimony

Expert testimony comes from a person recognized as knowledgeable in a particular field.

For example, citing a report by former U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Regina Benjamin in a speech about childhood obesity and mandatory physical education could add authority to the speaker’s argument.

Expert testimony can validate a speaker’s claims and demonstrate that the ideas are supported by credible sources.

Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness testimony is a firsthand account from someone who directly experienced an event.

For instance, a person who flew over the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and described what they observed would be providing eyewitness testimony.

Although eyewitness testimony can be compelling, it is subjective and may be influenced by memory, bias, or the passage of time. Speakers should clarify who the witness is, when the event occurred, and how the testimony was obtained.

Eyewitness accounts can also be unreliable. Mistaken eyewitness identifications have contributed to wrongful convictions that were later overturned through DNA evidence.

Expert testimony can build credibility, while eyewitness testimony can add immediacy. Both forms should be used ethically, carefully, and alongside other supporting evidence whenever possible.

Analogies

An analogy is a figure of speech that compares two ideas or objects by showing how they are similar. In public speaking, analogies may also be based on logic.

The logical use of an analogy begins with the idea that two objects or concepts share certain characteristics. The speaker then proposes that they may also be similar in other relevant ways.

Speakers can use two primary types of analogies: figurative and literal.

Figurative Analogies

Figurative analogies compare things from different categories. For example, a speaker might say that a new airplane is like an eagle.

Although figurative analogies can be vivid and imaginative, they can also be risky. If a comparison appears exaggerated, inaccurate, or misleading, the audience may reject the speaker’s point.

For example, comparing public health requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic to living in Nazi Germany is historically inaccurate and may be deeply offensive. Figurative analogies should be used carefully and supported with more concrete evidence.

Literal Analogies

Literal analogies compare things within the same category. For example, a speaker proposing a new fast-food brand might compare it with McDonald’s or Subway because all three businesses belong to the same industry.

A literal analogy can help audiences form logical connections and may strengthen an argument when the comparison is valid and the similarities are relevant.

Figurative analogies can add vividness, while literal analogies are generally more dependable for developing logical support. Both should be clear, relevant, and supported by credible evidence.