7.4 Using Support and Creating Arguments

7.4 Using Support and Creating Arguments

Supporting one’s ideas with a range of facts and statistics, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies can make the difference between a boring speech your audience will soon forget and one that has a lasting effect on their lives.

Although the research process is designed to help you find effective support, you still need to think through how you will use the support you have accumulated. In this section, we will examine how to use support effectively in one’s speech, first by examining the types of support one needs in a speech and then by seeing how support can be used to enhance one’s argument.

Understanding Arguments

Building Strong Arguments in Public Speaking

In everyday life, we often think of an argument as a heated disagreement. But in public speaking, an argument is a structured claim supported by evidence and reasoning. A strong argument begins with a clear, arguable thesis—not a simple fact, but a statement that invites discussion and can be supported with credible information.

Arguments are built from three key components:

• Claim: The main point or assertion you’re making.
• Evidence: The facts or data that support your claim.
• Warrant: The logical connection between the claim and the evidence—often implied rather than stated.

For example:

• Claim: Life without a car in Baton Rouge is difficult and dangerous.
• Evidence: The city lacks sidewalks and crosswalks, and the bus system is unreliable.
• Warrant: Because walking and public transit are unsafe or inconvenient, having a car is necessary.

Let’s take a closer look at three sample claims and evaluate whether they’re supported well enough to convince an audience:

1. Claim: LSU students should receive free tickets to all LSU home football games because we would have no football team without the university.

Warrant: Being enrolled at LSU is enough reason for students to receive this expensive commodity.

Analysis:

This claim appeals to the idea that students are the foundation of the university, and therefore deserve perks like free football tickets. However, the warrant assumes that student enrollment alone justifies giving away a high-value item—tickets worth over $1,000 per semester. To strengthen this argument, the speaker would need to provide additional evidence, such as how ticket access improves student engagement, or how other universities handle student ticketing. Without more support, the claim feels emotionally appealing but logically weak.

2. Claim: Baton Rouge is a dangerous place to live. According to FBI statistics, Baton Rouge had the 6th highest murder rate in the United States in 2019.

Warrant: One set of FBI statistics is enough to determine how safe a city is today.

Analysis:

This claim uses a single data point to make a sweeping generalization. While the murder rate is a serious concern, it doesn’t account for other factors like changes in crime trends, neighborhood safety differences, or improvements in law enforcement. To make this argument stronger, the speaker should include more recent data, compare multiple types of crime, and define what “dangerous” means in context. Relying on one statistic from 2019 oversimplifies a complex issue.

3. Claim: The United States will likely be hit by several powerful hurricanes this year. A team of scientists led by Dr. Phil Klotzbach at Colorado State University says there is about a 65% chance of above-average tropical storm activity.

Warrant: Dr. Klotzbach and his team can accurately predict hurricane activity.

Analysis:

This claim is based on expert forecasting, which adds credibility. However, the warrant assumes the audience knows and trusts Dr. Klotzbach’s expertise. To strengthen the argument, the speaker should explain his credentials, the reliability of his team’s past predictions, and how hurricane forecasting works. Without that context, some listeners may question how a scientist in Colorado can predict storms in the Gulf or Atlantic regions. Providing background on the forecasting model and its track record would make the claim more convincing.

Final Thought

Strong arguments require more than just bold claims—they need solid evidence and clear reasoning. Always ask yourself: Is my audience likely to accept the connection between my claim and evidence? If not, add more support or clarify your logic. Your argument is only as strong as its weakest link.

Sifting Through Your Support

When researching a topic, you’re going to find a range of different types of supporting evidence. You may find examples of all six types of support: facts and statistics, definitions, examples, narratives, testimony, and analogies. Sooner or later, you are going to have to make some decisions as to which pieces of support you will use and which you won’t. While there is no one way to select your support, here are some helpful suggestions.

Using Support Effectively

One of the keys to a strong speech is using a variety of support types. Relying too heavily on one kind—like only quoting statistics or only telling stories—can quickly lose your audience’s interest. Just like eating the same food every day gets boring, your speech needs a mix of support to stay engaging. Definitions, examples, narratives, statistics, and testimony can all work together to reinforce your message and appeal to different audience preferences.

It’s also important to choose support that fits your speech’s purpose and context. A precise definition might work well in a legal or academic setting, but not in a casual or entertaining speech. Likewise, a humorous story might charm an audience during a toast but could undermine your credibility in a serious persuasive speech.

Always check for relevance. Every piece of support should clearly connect to your speech’s specific purpose. A great quote or statistic is only useful if it strengthens your argument. Consider your audience, too—what resonates with one group may fall flat with another. For example, referencing 9/11 might be powerful for older adults but meaningless to younger listeners who didn’t experience it.

Also, don’t overload your speech with support. More isn’t always better. If you have multiple sources that make the same point, choose the one that’s most relatable and impactful. Support should enhance your speech—not take it over.

Finally, use support ethically. Never twist evidence to fit your argument or ignore facts that contradict your point. Avoid outdated, biased, or misleading sources, and always cite your support clearly during your speech. Your credibility depends on honesty and transparency.

By using a thoughtful mix of relevant, appropriate, and ethical support, you’ll build a speech that’s not only persuasive but also respectful and engaging for your audience.

Using Support within Your Speech

In the previous sections of this chapter, we’ve talked about the various types of support you can use (facts and statistics, definitions, examples, narratives, testimonies, and analogies). In this section, we’ll go over how to incorporate evidence into your speech, as well as how to think through the support you need for a speech and also how to actually use support while speaking.

Forms of Speech Support

Let’s begin by examining the forms that support can take in a speech: direct quotations, paraphrases, summaries, numerical data, and visual aids.

1. Direct Quotations

A direct quotation uses the exact words of another speaker or writer. Use quotes sparingly and only when the original wording is especially powerful, vivid, or authoritative.

Use a direct quote when:

• The author’s words are memorable or uniquely phrased.
• You want to highlight an expert’s credibility.
• You plan to analyze the specific wording.

Example:
“As Surgeon General Dr. Regina Benjamin stated, ‘Obesity is one of the most pressing health issues facing our nation today.'”
This quote is short, impactful, and clearly attributed.

Tip: Avoid long quotes. Instead, quote only what’s necessary and smoothly integrate it into your own speech.

Paraphrases

Paraphrasing means restating someone else’s ideas in your own words. It shows you understand the material and allows you to tailor it to your audience.

Use a paraphrase when:

• The original wording is too complex.
• You can express the idea more clearly or concisely.
• You want to adapt the example to fit your argument.

Example:
Instead of quoting a long passage about childhood obesity, you might say:
“Dr. Benjamin argues that childhood obesity is a growing crisis that demands immediate action from schools and communities.”

Tip: A good paraphrase requires deep understanding—don’t just swap out a few words.

2. Summaries

Summaries condense longer texts into a brief overview. They’re useful when you want to present the main idea of a source without diving into all the details.

Use a summary when:

• You need to explain an author’s overall argument.
• You’re presenting a counterargument.
• You’re referencing multiple sources quickly.

Example:
“In her report, Dr. Benjamin outlines several strategies for reducing childhood obesity, including school-based fitness programs and community education.”

Tip: Keep summaries short and focused on the core message.

3. Numerical Data

Statistics can be persuasive, but only if your audience understands them. Always explain what the numbers mean and where they come from.

Example:
“According to the CDC, nearly 1 in 5 children in the U.S. are obese. That’s over 14 million kids.”
Then explain: “This means that in a typical classroom of 25 students, about 5 may be struggling with obesity.”

Tip: If the data is complex, use a visual aid like a chart or graph to help clarify.

4. Visual Aids

Visual aids—like objects, diagrams, or videos—can make your speech more engaging and easier to understand.

Use a visual aid when:

• A picture or demonstration is clearer than words.
• You want to emphasize a key point.

Example:
In a speech about golf techniques, you could bring a golf club to demonstrate a swing or show a short video clip of a professional golfer.

Tip: Make sure your visual is visible to everyone and doesn’t distract from your message. It should enhance—not replace—your explanation.

Using a mix of support types—quotes, paraphrases, summaries, data, and visuals—adds depth and variety to your speech. Choose the right kind of support for your topic, audience, and purpose, and always cite your sources clearly and ethically. This not only strengthens your credibility but also keeps your audience informed and engaged.

Is Your Support Adequate?

Evaluating Your Support: Do You Have Enough?

Once you’ve selected support for your speech, it’s important to assess whether it’s sufficient and effective. One helpful strategy is to create a reverse outline. This technique involves starting with your conclusion and working backward through your speech to see how each point leads logically to that final idea. By outlining your speech in reverse, you can identify gaps in reasoning or areas where support may be missing. For example, if your conclusion is that public schools should require physical education in all grades, your reverse outline should show how each main point—such as rising childhood obesity rates or the link between exercise and academic performance—builds toward that conclusion with clear, relevant evidence.

Another essential step is to check that every claim is supported. It’s easy to make broad statements in a speech, but without evidence, those claims lose credibility. For instance, if you say, “Most Americans support immigration reform,” you need to back that up with data—perhaps from a recent national poll conducted by a reputable organization. Too often, speakers include claims without verifying them, which weakens the overall argument. As you review your speech, ask yourself: Do I have reliable support for each claim? Is the evidence current, relevant, and clearly connected to my point?

By reverse outlining and carefully checking your claims, you ensure that your speech is not only well-organized but also persuasive and credible. These steps help you move beyond surface-level ideas and build a speech that truly resonates with your audience.

Incorporating Support into Your Oral Presentation

How to Incorporate Support: Setup, Execution, and Analysis

Once you’ve selected and evaluated your supporting materials, the next step is to integrate them smoothly into your speech. This process involves three key stages: setup, execution, and analysis.

Setup: Introducing Your Source

Before presenting any evidence, you need to prepare your audience by explaining where the information comes from. This is called the setup. A good setup gives your audience context and helps establish the credibility of your source.

Depending on the situation, you might include:

• The author’s name and credentials (if relevant).
• The title of the source.
• The publication date.
• The name of the larger work or platform where the source appears (e.g., a magazine, website, or book).

Example:
“According to Melanie Smithfield, in her article ‘Do It Right, or Do It Now,’ published in the June 18, 2009 issue of Time Magazine, …”
This setup tells the audience who wrote the piece, what it’s called, when it was published, and where it appeared—all useful for evaluating credibility.

Avoid simply saying, “I found this online.” Instead, give enough detail so your audience can understand the source’s relevance and reliability.

Execution: Presenting the Support

The execution is where you deliver the actual evidence—whether it’s a direct quote, paraphrase, summary, statistic, or visual aid. This part should flow naturally within your speech. Avoid sounding robotic or disconnected when you shift from your own words to the source material.

Tip: Practice how you’ll say the evidence out loud. If your tone or delivery changes dramatically, it can distract your audience or make the transition feel awkward.

Analysis: Explaining the Support

The final step—and one that many speakers forget—is analysis. After presenting your support, you need to explain what it means and how it connects to your argument. Don’t assume your audience will automatically understand the relevance.

To analyze effectively:

• Restate the support in your own words (unless you’ve already paraphrased or summarized).
• Clearly explain how the support relates to your point.
• Draw a logical conclusion that ties the evidence back to your overall message.

Example:
“This quote from Smithfield highlights how procrastination can lead to rushed decisions. It supports my argument that time management is essential for effective leadership.”

By walking your audience through the setup, execution, and analysis, you ensure that your support strengthens your speech rather than distracting from it. This three-step process helps you build credibility, clarity, and connection with your listeners.